June 3, 2019: A Dawn Written in Blood
At dawn on June 3, 2019, during the holy month of Ramadan, Sudan witnessed one of the darkest moments in its modern history. Just two months earlier, the military had taken charge after former President Omar al-Bashir was overthrown from power. The scene unfolded in front of the headquarters of the General Command of the Sudanese Armed Forces in the heart of the capital, Khartoum. Thousands of civilians had gathered there in a peaceful sit-in, demanding the transfer of power to a civilian government.
Othman, a young man in his thirties, was among those present at the sit-in. Like many Sudanese, he believed that the fall of Bashir marked the beginning of a new chapter for the country. That belief would be violently shattered.
As a military convoy reached the edge of the sit-in area, police forces and the Rapid Support Forces surrounded the protesters. Chants filled the air—calls for civilian rule and rejection of military domination. Moments after dawn prayers, while people were fasting, live ammunition was fired into the crowd.
The minimum estimated death toll stood at 120, while hundreds more went missing. Othman recalls: “We tried to push back the Rapid Support Forces, but they surrounded the area and fired at us. Three of my relatives were killed, including two men and a woman. When we tried to transport the bodies, I felt a blow to my head. I lost consciousness and did not wake up until three days later in the hospital.”
The General Command Massacre
The events of that morning were later documented in a 60-page report by Human Rights Watch, which became known as “The General Command Massacre.” The report detailed killings, enforced disappearances, sexual violence, and the dumping of bodies into the Nile.
At the time, few could have imagined that just four years later, those sixty pages would not be enough to document the atrocities committed by the same perpetrators. Their escape from accountability sent a dangerous message: violence could be committed without consequence. That message would later ignite a far deadlier conflict.
Sudan’s History of War and Missed Lessons
Sudan has experienced repeated cycles of war and civil conflict. One might assume that its leaders, shaped by decades of bloodshed, would learn from these experiences and avoid dragging the country back into darkness. Yet in April 2023, Sudan descended into another war, this time not confined to one region, but engulfing the entire country.
The conflict erupted between the Sudanese Armed Forces, led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the Rapid Support Forces, led by Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, widely known as Hemedti. Would this war, like others before it, continue for years? And what events led to the final Ramadan iftar that preceded the outbreak of violence?
The Roots of Military Power in Sudan
For centuries, Sudan has maintained a complex relationship with military power. The modern Sudanese army was formed in 1925 during British colonial rule. After independence in 1956, political disagreements among civilian elites prompted repeated calls for military intervention.
In 1958, Ibrahim Abboud led the country’s first military coup. Another followed in 1969 under Jaafar Nimeiri. These set the stage for the 1989 coup that brought Omar al-Bashir to power, ushering in three decades of dictatorship marked by repression, economic collapse, and wars across the country. That era ended in 2019 with a single chant echoing across Sudan: “Tasgut Bas”, Just Fall.
From Revolution to Fragile Transition
Following Bashir’s ouster, a Transitional Military Council was formed, led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, with Hemedti serving as his deputy. Continued protests forced the military to share power with civilians, leading to the formation of a Sovereignty Council in August 2019.
This arrangement collapsed in October 2021, when Burhan and Hemedti jointly led another coup, claiming it was meant to “correct the path of the revolution.” Burhan promised a return to civilian rule before July 2023, a promise that was never fulfilled.
Darfur, Janjaweed, and the Making of Hemedti
Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, known as Hemedti, comes from the Arab Rizeigat tribe in Darfur. Originally involved in camel trading, he formed militias to protect caravans. Darfur, long neglected and environmentally devastated, erupted into rebellion in 2003 when non-Arab tribes rose against Khartoum’s marginalization.
Rather than intervene directly, Bashir’s regime chose a proxy war, supporting the Janjaweed militias, a name often translated as “devils on horseback.” The result was mass killing, rape, village destruction, and the displacement of millions.
Despite documented atrocities, Hemedti was rewarded. He was granted the rank of Brigadier General despite never attending a military academy. In 2017, his forces were formalized as the Rapid Support Forces, reporting directly to the presidency.
Partners Turned Rivals
Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, born in 1960 in River Nile State, is a career army officer. He rose through the ranks, served as a military attaché in China, and played roles in Darfur and the Sudanese deployment in Yemen alongside Hemedti.
Although they initially ruled together after 2019, their alliance unraveled over one central issue: the integration of the Rapid Support Forces into the national army. Burhan demanded swift integration within a year. Hemedti insisted the process should take a decade, unwilling to relinquish the power he had built over twenty years.
The Last Iftar and the Outbreak of War
In April 2023, tensions peaked. Mediators attempted to intervene as negotiations stalled over military leadership during the transitional period. During Ramadan, Burhan and Hemedti attended an iftar at the home of Lieutenant General Shams al-Din Kabashi.
Outside, the streets of Khartoum told a different story. Military vehicles and RSF units spread across the city. At dawn on April 15, 2023, the first shot was fired. Sudan plunged into full-scale war.
A Nation Paying the Price
Hemedti claims he is fighting for democracy and a civilian state. Burhan claims he is defending Sudan from betrayal. Between these narratives lies a fragmented country, its cities divided between rival forces. All negotiation tracks have failed. What began as impunity for a massacre has exploded into a war whose shrapnel has scattered across Sudan, costing its people their lives, homes, and futures.
Bibliography
Human Rights Watch. The General Command Massacre. 2019.
Human Rights Watch. Men with No Mercy: Rapid Support Forces Attacks against Civilians in Darfur. 2015.
International Crisis Group. Sudan Reports, 2019–2023.
United Nations Panel of Experts on Sudan. Various Rep
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