A year after the intense military confrontation between Pakistan and India during Marka-i-Haq, the conflict continues to be studied as one of the most technologically significant clashes between the two nuclear-armed neighbours in recent history.
The four-day conflict witnessed the large-scale use of advanced missiles, drones, fighter aircraft, and integrated warfare systems, with Pakistan employing a combination of indigenous capabilities and Chinese-origin technology to counter Indian military operations.
The conflict began after escalating tensions led to missile exchanges and aerial engagements between both sides. Pakistan later launched Operation Bunyanum Marsoos in response to Indian strikes, targeting multiple military installations across the border before a US-brokered ceasefire brought the fighting to an end.
One of the most significant aspects of the conflict was Pakistan’s use of network-centric warfare, a military doctrine based on real-time information sharing between fighter jets, airborne surveillance platforms, radar systems, and ground command centres.
According to defence analysts, Pakistan integrated Chinese and Western hardware using locally developed software systems to create a unified operational network. This enabled rapid battlefield coordination and allowed Pakistani forces to detect and track Indian aircraft at long ranges.
Military experts stated that the system enabled Pakistan Air Force pilots to engage Indian aircraft in beyond-visual-range combat, resulting in the downing of multiple Indian fighter jets, including French-made Rafale aircraft.
Retired Brigadier Masood Ahmed said the real-time data-sharing system allowed Pakistani pilots to establish what he described as an “ambush” against incoming Indian Air Force formations during the opening phase of the conflict.
Drones and unmanned aerial systems also emerged as a central component of the fighting. Both Pakistan and India used drones extensively for surveillance, reconnaissance, and precision targeting during the conflict.
A report published by the Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) noted that Pakistan deployed loitering munitions, commonly referred to as kamikaze drones, alongside medium-range unmanned combat platforms during Operation Bunyanum Marsoos.
Following Indian drone and missile attacks, Pakistan reportedly targeted dozens of military sites inside India using systems including the YIHA III loitering munition, Asisguard Songar quadcopters, and Chinese-origin CH-4 and Wing Loong II drones.
Analysts observed that Pakistan’s drone programme relies on a combination of domestic production, partnerships with Turkey and China, and the adaptation of commercial technologies for military use.
The Chengdu J-10C fighter jet also played a major role during the conflict. The Chinese-made fourth-generation multirole aircraft was reportedly used in aerial engagements against Indian fighter jets during the initial phase of hostilities.
Pakistan Air Force Chief Air Marshal Zaheer Ahmed Babar had previously described the J-10C as a combat platform equipped with integrated avionics, electronic warfare systems, and advanced weapons suited for modern non-contact warfare environments.
The aircraft was armed with the PL-15 beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile, a Chinese weapons system capable of travelling at speeds exceeding Mach 5 with an estimated operational range of up to 300 kilometres.
Defence analysts believe the conflict marked the first confirmed combat use of the PL-15 missile system. Experts stated that integrated battlefield data allowed Pakistani forces to guide the missiles toward targets located deep inside contested airspace.
Pakistan also deployed its indigenous Fatah guided multiple launch rocket system during Operation Bunyanum Marsoos. The mobile artillery system, capable of launching precision-guided rockets and missiles, was reportedly used to strike Indian military targets at long range.
Military analysts highlighted the system’s mobility and rapid deployment capability as key operational advantages during the conflict.
Another major weapon system reportedly used during the fighting was the Chinese-made CM-400AKG supersonic missile. The missile, capable of speeds approaching Mach 5, was used against Indian air defence assets, including reported strikes on S-400 systems.
International defence observers noted that the conflict marked one of the first major demonstrations of integrated drone warfare, network-centric combat systems, and long-range missile coordination in South Asia.
The conflict ended after international diplomatic intervention led to a ceasefire, but military analysts continue to examine the confrontation as a significant example of modern high-technology warfare between two nuclear powers.